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January 1997 Volume 7, No. 1
IN THIS ISSUE
WORLD WATER WATCH
Is There a Water Shortage?
LITERATURE REVIEWS
Distance Education in The Caribbean
Investing in Electricity in Latin America
A Cold Chain for Saving Lives
ORGANIZATIONS
Institute of International Education
VITA PROJECTS
Madagascar: Local Outreach
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Resources Management: The Human Dimension
Rainwater Catchment Systems
International Short Course on Agroecology
* * *
DevelopNet News is published monthly by Volunteers in Technical
Assistance (VITA) in Arlington, Virginia, USA. For additional
information, please see the end of this newsletter.
* * *
W o r l d W a t e r W a t c h
IS THERE A WATER SHORTAGE?
People can live for two months without food, but will die in less than a
week without water. Unfortunately, like many other resources today,
water is getting scarce and more expensive; it is often contaminated
with harmful chemicals or disease-causing microorganisms. The World
Health Organization says more than 1,100 million people (one-fifth of
humanity) lack access to a safe and adequate water supply. Eighty per-
cent of all sicknesses and one-third of the deaths in developing coun-
tries are traced to contaminated water.
As the developing world nears the end of the 20th century, one-quarter
of its urban populations are still not connected to a public water sys-
tem, half lack public sewerage, and the sewage is virtually untreated.
The results are a constant threat to the health of the entire popula-
tion, a perpetuation of unmet basic needs of the poor, and a steady
deterioration of the environment.
Why Water is Scarce
One reason is human population growth: as more people crowd the Earth,
water availability per person falls. As food producers increase their
efforts, the amount of cultivated land increases and so does the use of
irrigation. Other causes of scarcity: inefficient agricultural irriga-
tion practices, dam construction, river diversion, watershed deforesta-
tion, industrial pollution, groundwater and aquifer mining, and uncon-
trolled human waste disposal.
Severe water scarcity affects fewer than 25 countries in the world,
mostly in North Africa and the Middle East. But the World Resources
Institute reports: "intermittent or inadequate water supplies . . . are
rarely due to true freshwater shortages; more often, they can be attrib-
uted to misguided priorities, inappropriate pricing, or poor manage-
ment." This means that to a great extent inadequate water supplies are
the result of misguided human interventions, often in industrial coun-
tries, and steps can be taken to correct them.
A Call for Action
Although the WHO's International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation
Decade (1981-1990) did not provide safe water for everybody, it did
bring into focus five key issues that, if addressed, can dramatically
improve the water supply situation: (1) Water supply systems should be
as simple, sturdy, and inexpensive as possible. They should respond to
local demands. (2) Whenever possible, existing facilities should be used
rather than investing in new infrastructure. (3) The direct involvement
of communities and households is crucial to success. (4) Governments
must undertake to improve the efficiency and sustainability of water
system operation and maintenance. (5) Water should be treated as an eco-
nomic commodity to be paid for by users.
Responding to Local Demands
An adequate water supply system carries safe water to its users. A
system includes a water source, transport devices, treatment methods,
and storage facilities. If the system is not designed to respond to and
meet local needs then it will be inefficient and contribute to rather
than help correct water supply shortages. To this end, water supply sys-
tems should take into account the key local water supply problems and
their causes, as well as the capacity of the local community to partici-
pate in their resolution. The World Resources Institute finds that sys-
tems using lower-level standard technologies can be effective and much
less expensive, at only one-tenth to one-twentieth of the cost of the
latest technologies.
Communities are essential participants, not only by supplying informa-
tion critical to the correct design of the water supply system, but also
by their commitment to its maintenance. Failure to involve a community
in planning and maintaining its water system can lead to inefficiencies,
faulty maintenance, and eventual system disintegration.
Improving Efficiency
There are plenty of opportunities to improve water supply by improving
the efficiency of water use. Irrigation systems often perform poorly and
have been known to waste up to 60% of the pumped water before it reaches
the target crop. Such efficient technologies as drip irrigation and
lined irrigation canals reduce water waste. Since agriculture is respon-
sible for approximately 70% of global water use, the potential for water
savings through greater efficiency in irrigation is enormous.
Improving the maintenance and efficiency of existing facilities can not
only save money but also reduce or delay the need for large investments
in new facilities. The generally poor performance of water facilities in
the developing world leaves ample room for improvement. Thus, in Manila,
about 58% of the water that is treated and distributed at public expense
is neither metered nor otherwise accounted for. In Latin America similar
water losses cost between $1,000 million and $1,500 million a year.
Reductions of such losses by promptly repairing leakages, recalibrating
meters, etc., is much cheaper than investing in new equipment.
Consumers Should Pay
When a commodity, water or anything else, is undervalued it is more
often than not wasted. In developing countries, consumers pay only about
35% of the costs of supplying water. Although drinking water is a basic
human need and sufficient water for good hygiene is a prerequisite of
public health, subsidizing the cost of water cannot be justified by
claiming that it benefits poor people. In fact, subsidies rarely reach
the urban and rural poor; they most often benefit the better-off consum-
ers who have house connections. The poor, more often than not, end up
buying water from vendors paying up to 30% of their income for the water
they need. Full payment of on-plot or in-house water supplies would be a
significantly cheaper alternative. Not only that, but it would likely
provide the incentives needed for conservation and the investment needed
to spread more efficient technologies. In order to encourage water con-
servation and efficiency of use, water pricing should be based on full
cost recovery.
Mobilizing Resources
Fortunately, communities and policy makers are beginning to address
water scarcity. In recent years, international organizations have also
increased their efforts to deal with water management issues and provide
basic water services. But communities and organizations must remain com-
mitted in order resolve the problems. Some collaborative relationships
are already in place. The Inter-American Water Resources Network, for
example, is already an important regional effort that seeks to join gov-
ernmental, nongovernmental, academic, and international organizations
with research groups, industry, and the private sector to share informa-
tion and technology, provide partnerships, and promote training oppor-
tunities that will lead to better water management and increased water
supplies. Many more such organizations are needed to safeguard the water
supply for future generations.
Source: Vicki Tsiliopoulos <mailto:vickit@vita.org>.
L i t e r a t u r e R e v i e w s
DISTANCE EDUCATION IN THE CARIBBEAN
Winnifred M. Hall and Christine Marrett, 1996. "Quality Teacher Educa-
tion via Distance Mode, a Caribbean Experience." Journal of Education
for Teaching, volume 22, no. 1, pages 85 - 94.
The anglophone countries of the Caribbean are developing a teacher
education program to help solve the shortage of trained teachers under
limited economic resources. The University of the West Indies Distance
Training Experiment is based on an interactive teleconferencing network.
The 15-month curriculum includes foundation courses and those relating
to specific options (mathematics, social studies, teaching deaf stu-
dents, etc.) along with a practicum "where students, under supervision,
implement what they have learned." Completed written assignments are
handed in at project offices in each participating country.
Nearly all of the 169 teachers who responded to an evaluation ques-
tionnaire liked the project and participated frequently in class dis-
cussions. The activities of preparation for class were given lower rat-
ings and are thus judged to need strengthening. Participants wanted a
stronger counselling program (for getting advice on class assignments)
and prompter feedback on work submitted. According to the authors (Uni-
versity of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica), several participants
believed the distance method was underutilized even though the quality
of the courses matched conventional programs.
INVESTING IN ELECTRICITY IN LATIN AMERICA
John Javetski, 1996. "The Lure of Latin America." Electrical World,
Volume 210, No. 9, pages 23 - 28.
Most Latin American countries are trying to make their electricity
sectors more market oriented as the nations move toward economies that
are more open. In many cases they would like to attract more foreign
capital to meet in-country demands for electricity to overcome produc-
tion deficiencies. As an example, nations that rely heavily on hydro-
power continue to experience droughts that lead to power shortages. And
some power projects are incomplete or astonishingly inefficient. Fur-
thermore, when countries try to control inflation, they often implement
policies that discourage industrial growth. John Javetski (Electrical
World, New York) says, "Across Latin America, electricity-sector reform
is still in its infancy; few private-power projects outside of Chile and
Argentina have yet to be completed." Other countries are studying the
successes of these two countries to emulate the conditions.
Among the troubled projects are a 185-megawatt barge-mounted power plant
in the Dominican Republic which is in debt to its U.S. joint-venture
partners; a gas turbine project in Ecuador shut down in April because of
a rate dispute; and a 750-MW project in Colombia to which the Export-
Import Bank of the United States suspended payments because of U.S.
decertification of Colombia for failing to support its war on drugs
(payments were later resumed). But some U.S. banking leaders urge
patience. Encouraging signs have prompted public and foreign support for
new projects in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Peru. Privatiza-
tion of electrical sectors is under way in El Salvador, Guatemala, and
Honduras.
A COLD CHAIN FOR SAVING LIVES
Delwyn Jenkins, 1996. "A Cold Chain Friendly to People ... And The Envi-
ronment." Africa Health, volume 18, no. 6, pages 19 to 20.
When the World Health Organization started its child immunization cru-
sade in 1974, fewer than five percent of the world's children were fully
immunized against diphtheria and five other major infectious diseases.
Now, WHO aims to vaccinate 90% of children against diphtheria, pertus-
sis, tetanus, tuberculosis, and measles by the year 2000. But, until
now, the lack of refrigeration prevented the delivery of vaccines to
remote locations. Hence the recent advent of "vaccine cold chains,"
series of medical refrigerators, many of them operated by solar energy,
that are now in place. For example, Ethiopia (population 50 million) has
over 25,000 people for each fridge, but around 65% of the children there
are now fully immunized. The African coverage in 1995 was close to this
figure.
The author (from DULAS Engineering, U.K.) says that just putting the
refrigerators in place is not enough; people must be trained to use and
maintain them, and health workers need to be organized to carry the vac-
cines in ice packs from one refrigerator to the next. Temperatures are
recorded twice a day and a tag attached to each vaccine box changes
color if allowable temperature limits have been breached. Unfortunately,
very few solar refrigerators are CFC free, so efforts to reach that
environmental goal must continue. Solar refrigerators cost less than
conventional models to operate over the lifetime of the device.
O r g a n i z a t i o n s
INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
IIE is a private, not-for-profit U.S. organization. It administers some
230 international development education programs sponsored by govern-
ments, international organizations, corporations, and foundations. IIE
provides assistance in project planning, identifies training programs
appropriate to project objectives, places participants in programs and
sponsors their visas, manages sponsors' funds, and monitors partici-
pants' progress. IIE currently operates offices in Egypt, Hong Kong,
Hungary, Mexico, the Philippines, Russia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the
United States.
Information: Institute of International Education, 809 United Nations
Plaza, New York, New York 10017; tel. + 1 (212) 883-8200; fax +1 (212)
984-5566; e-mail <mailto:publicaffairs@iie.org>; URL <http://www.iie.org>.
V I T A P r o j e c t s
MADAGASCAR: LOCAL OUTREACH
In October 1996, VITA's effort in Madagascar, called the Integrated
Conservation and Development Project, inaugurated a 60-meter foot bridge
to provide a link for isolated communities where the project operates.
The Vohibazaha and nearby, smaller villages are located in a pocket
between the Andasibe-Mantadia National Park and the large Sahatandra
River. Richard Slacum, VITA's Chief of Party there, says, "There are no
roads in this region, only trails and the moribund railroad system. The
only way of reaching towns or roads was by crossing the river on make-
shift bridges during the dry season, and on rafts during the rainy sea-
son. The result of this isolation is that there are no medical services,
and no teachers. Reaching markets with agricultural produce (ginger,
rice, coffee, bananas) is at best difficult."
The bridge will provide these communities with their first permanent
link to other parts of the country. "Most importantly, the bridge sym-
bolizes the linkages between conservation and development." It could not
have been built without funds that came from the fees the program char-
ges tourists to see the Mantadia National Park, more than 2,000 person
days worth of labor contributed by the local community, the assistance
of a heavy construction firm, and help from a local nongovernmental
organization. "The message we wanted to send," continues Slacum "was
that protecting such natural resources as the Park results in positive
fallout to the communities. In this case, 50% of the entry fees from
4,500 foreign visitors paid for the bridge."
During construction the villagers widened and improved the main trail on
both sides of the bridge. While travel is still difficult, the river
crossing has become much easier and a great deal safer. The project has
plans to construct another foot bridge and a 4x4 and pickup truck
bridge, and improve the roadway so that most of the peripheral area will
be accessible by small vehicles.
Information: Mohammad Shah <mailto:mshah@vita.org>
A n n o u n c e m e n t s
RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: THE HUMAN DIMENSION
"1997 International Symposium on Human Dimensions of Natural Resource
Management in the Americas." It will address the growing themes of the
importance of a global perspective and the human element of natural
resource management. Its interrelated objectives include increasing the
understanding of the social and cultural aspects of natural resource
issues in the Americas, and addressing how the social sciences can
enhance the effectiveness of natural resource decisions. It is also
intended to foster a network among professionals in the Americas working
in the human dimensions of natural resources.
The event is sponsored by the Belize Ministry of Natural Resources in
conjunction with the Human Dimensions in Natural Resources Unit of
Colorado State University's College of Natural Resources and the Univer-
sity College of Belize.
Information: Jennifer Pate, Symposium Coordinator Human Dimensions in
Natural Resources Unit, College of Natural Resources, Colorado State
University, Ft. Collins, Colorado 80523; tel. +1 (970) 491-7729; fax: +1
(970) 491-2255; e-mail <mailto:jpate@cnr.colostate.edu>; URL: <http://www.cnr
.colostate.edu/~hdnru/hdsympo.html>.
RAINWATER CATCHMENT SYSTEMS
The 8th International Conference on Rainwater Catchment Systems will be
held in Tehran from 21 to 25 April 1997. The theme will be rainwater
catchment for survival and the conference will focus on a number of
topics associated with rainwater catchment system utilization in arid
and semi-arid areas. These include technologies and management, envir-
onmental and socioeconomic aspects, progress and innovations, and
training and innovative extension. Limited funds may be available for
some participants from developing countries. The Conference Organizing
Committee may be in a position to provide support for students as well.
The conference is organized by the Iranian Ministry of Construction in
cooperation with the International Rainwater Catchment Systems
Association.
Information: J. Ghoddousi, Conference Secretariat, P.O. Box 13445-1136,
Tehran, Iran; tel. +98 (21) 641-8335; fax +98 (21) 640-7214; e-mail
mailto:<rain@neda.net.ir>.
INTERNATIONAL SHORT COURSE ON AGROECOLOGY
The Center for Biological Control at the University of California,
Berkeley, and the Institute for Food and Development Policy (Food First)
announces an international short course on Agroecology for graduate stu-
dents, researchers, professors, and other agricultural professionals
from around the world to be held in Berkeley, California, 16 to 25 June
1997. The course will explore the theoretical and practical concepts and
principles of agroecology and their application to the design of sus-
tainable farming systems in industrialized countries and to the imple-
mentation of appropriate rural development projects in the developing
world.
The course will consist of illustrated lectures by invited specialists,
group discussions, hands-on workshops, individual and group presenta-
tions and field trips. Participants will receive an agroecology reader
with the latest articles in the field. Participants will have access to
the library for consulting literature and accessing electronic informa-
tion and data base systems. Enrollment is limited. Interested candidates
should send an abbreviated curriculum vitae and a letter to the official
named below, before 15 February 1997 explaining their background, cur-
rent work, and reasons for taking the course.
Information: Miguel A. Altieri, 201 Wellman Hall-3112, University of
California - Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720-3112; e-mail
mailto:<agroeco3@nature.berkeley.edu>; fax +1 (510) 642-7428.
* * *
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* * *
DevelopNet News is an electronic newsletter published monthly by Volun-
teers in Technical Assistance (VITA), a private, nonprofit, interna-
tional development organization located in Arlington, Virginia. The
newsletter needs your stories: you are invited to send them to the edi-
tor in electronic form. Your redistribution of DevelopNet News is
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downloaded gratis from VITA's BBS and gopher addresses.
President: Henry R. Norman <mailto:hnorman@vita.org>
Editor: Vicki Tsiliopoulos <mailto:vickit@vita.org>
Editorial Assistant: Rafe Ronkin, VITA Volunteer <mailto:rronkin@vita.org>
VITA specializes in information dissemination and communications tech-
nology. It offers services related to sustainable agriculture, food
processing, renewable energy applications, water sanitation and supply,
small enterprise development, and information management. It has pro-
jects in 6 African countries.
VITA's publications, on a variety of practical subjects, are designed to
assist persons and organizations in developing countries. You can
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VITA's on-line information services: 24-hr BBS: +1 (703) 527-1086 [9600,
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